Chapter
Six
Module 6.1
Remembering
Memory as Information Processing
Recall
the
ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like
fill in the blank test
Recognition
the
ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple choice test
Basic Memory Processes
(Figure 6.1)
Memory Encoding
Information comes in through our senses
Encoding: conversion of information into a form we can store
in memory
Types of encoding
Acoustic (sound)
Visual (mental picture)
Semantic (meaning)
Memory Encoding
Semantic Encoding
encoding
of meaning
including
meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding
encoding
of sound
especially
sound of words
Visual Encoding
encoding
of picture images
Memory Storage
Process of retaining information in memory
Time length varies
Memory Retrieval
Accessing stored information to make it available to
consciousness
Some memories retrieved
effortlessly
Retrieval cues often
required to bring memories to awareness
Retrieval Cues
Encoding
specificity principle
Context-dependent memory
effect
Setting/context of
learning serves as set of retrieval cues
State-dependent memory
effect
Better recall when in
same physiological or psychological state while learning/recalling. What is learned in one state (while one is
high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state.
Memory Stages
Three-stage
model
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Sensory Memory
Hold sensory information for a very short time
Fraction of a second to
a few seconds
Sensory register
Iconic memory (visual stimuli)
Echoic memory (auditory stimuli)
Testing Sensory Memory
George Sperling (1960)
Partial-report technique
Demonstrates iconic
memory
R C B T
B N K H
P C L W
Short-Term Memory
Short-term or working memory
Retain and process information for up to 30 seconds
Actively worked on or processed by the brain
All conscious thoughts and stimuli
About 7 items (Magic 7)
Enhanced by
Chunking
Organizing items into
familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization- 1776149218121941
often occurs
automatically
Maintenance rehearsal
Three-Component Model
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Working memory
Phonological loop:
speech-based, verbal
Visuospatial sketchpad:
drawing pad
Central executive:
coordinates other two
Long-Term Memory
Retains information beyond short term memory
From hours to a lifetime
Long-Term Memory: Consolidation
Brain converts unstable, short-term memories into lasting,
stable memories
First 24 hours critical
Dreams, REM sleep play a role
Elaborative Rehearsal
Semantic coding
Focus on the meaning of
material while rehearsing
Associate new material
with familiar, meaningful information
Semantic Network
Long-Term Memory:
Levels-of-Processing
Level information is processed at determines how well
information is stored in memory
Deep processing
(meaning)
Best retention
Shallow processing
(superficial)
Poor retention
Contents of Long-Term Memory
Declarative memory (explicit memory)
Knowing that or
knowing what
Semantic memory: memory
of facts
Episodic memory: memory
of personal experience
Retrospective memory:
memory of past events
Prospective memory:
memory of future plans
Procedural memory
Knowing how
Implicit memory: evoked
without conscious effort
Reliability of Long-Term Memory
Can we trust our memories?
Constructionist theory: memory is a reconstructive process
Can lead to distortions
Flashbulb memories
Vivid but prone to
distortions
Reliability of Long-Term Memory
Eyewitness testimony
Can be flawed and
mistaken
Misinformation effect
Accuracy influenced by:
Ease of recall
Degree of confidence
Knowledge of a subject
Racial identification
Types of
questions
Recovery of repressed memories
Controversial issue
Some may be genuine
Others are false
Module 6.2
Forgetting
Theories of Forgetting
Encoding failure
Decay theory
Interference theory
Retrieval theory
Motivated forgetting
Decay Theory
Memories fade and deteriorate over time
Ebbinghaus (1885): early experimental studies
Forgetting
curve
Massed vs. spaced practice effect
Interference Theory
Retroactive interference
Proactive interference
Minimizing interference
Sleep
Rehearsal and
overlearning
Breaks
Avoid sequential study
of similar material
Retroactive interference
Proactive interference
Minimizing interference
Sleep
Rehearsal and
overlearning
Breaks
Avoid sequential study
of similar material
May explain the serial position effect
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Retrieval Theory
Forgetting is the result of failure to access stored memory
Encoding
failure
Lack
of retrieval cues
Tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon
Encoding Failure
Motivated Forgetting
Sigmund Freud
Repression: threatening memories kept hidden from awareness
Traumatic experiences
Unacceptable impulses,
desires
Measuring Memory
How it can be measured
Recall tasks
Free recall
Serial recall
Paired-associates recall
Recognition tasks
Amnesia
Memory loss
Types
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
Childhood amnesia
Causes
Physical damage or
disease
Psychological:
dissociative amnesia
Module 6.3
The Biology of Memory
Memory and Brain Structures
Karl Lashley (1890-1958)
Search for the engram
Concluded memories scattered throughout the
brain
Neuronal networks
PET scans and fMRI
research
Circuitry of
constellations of neurons make up memory
Hippocampus
Structure in limbic
system
Role in converting
short-term to long-term memory
Thalamus and amygdala
Connections Between Neurons
Kandels work with sea snail (Aplysia)
Long-term potentiation
Synaptic connections
strengthened by repeated stimulation
May lead to conversion
of STM into LTM
Genetic Bases of Memory
Gene regulation
Proteins necessary for
making long-term memories
Genetically engineered smart mouse
Module 6.4
Application: Powering Up Your Memory
Mnemonics
Acronyms
Acrostics
Popular sayings and rhymes
Visual cues and imagery
Method of loci
Pegword system
Chunking
Memory Improvement
General guidelines
Pay attention
Practice, overlearn
External memory aids
Link time-based tasks to
external cues
Mentally rehearse
Enhance
context-dependent memory effects
Control stress
Adopt healthy habits
