Chapter Twelve

Module 12.1

The Psychodynamic Perspective

Psychoanalytic Theory

• Developed by Sigmund Freud

• Importance of instincts

– Sexual instinct

– Aggressive instinct

• Instincts must be balanced with social acceptability

Levels of Consciousness
(Figure 12.1)

Psychoanalytic Theory:
Structure of Personality

• Id

– Unconscious drives and instincts

– Follows the pleasure principle, instant gratification

• Ego

– Follows the reality principle

– Balancing id’s demands with social approval

• Superego

– Moral guardian, conscience

– May impose self-punishment, guilt, shame

Psychoanalytic Theory:
Defense Mechanisms

• Ego prevents anxiety by keeping troubling desires, memories from consciousness

• Examples

• Repression

• Denial

• Reaction formation

• Rationalization

• Projection

• Sublimation

Psychoanalytic Theory:
Personality Development

• Psychosexual stages of development

– Characterized by changes in libido, shifting location of erogenous zones

– Fixations may occur

• Personality traits characteristic of a certain stage

Psychosexual Stages of Development

• Oral: birth to 12-18 months old

– Pleasure through sucking, mouthing, chewing

• Anal: 18-36 months

– Ability to control elimination

• Phallic: ages 3-6

– Masturbation of penis or clitoris

– Boys: Oedipus complex, castration anxiety

– Girls: Electra complex, penis envy

• Latent: ages 6-12

– Sexual impulses remain dormant

• Genital: puberty

– Attraction to opposite gender

– Sexual intercourse, marriage, child bearing

Other Psychodynamic Approaches

• Beyond Sigmund Freud: neo-Freudians

• Lesser emphasis on sex and aggression

• Greater emphasis on social relationships, ego, concept of self

Other Psychodynamic Approaches

• Carl Jung: Analytical psychology

– Personal unconscious

– Collective unconscious

– Archetypes

• Alfred Adler: Individual psychology

– Emphasis on unique potential

– Creative self

– Inferiority complex

– Drive for superiority

• Karen Horney

– Less focus on sexual, aggressive drives

– More focus on social, cultural forces

– Basic anxiety

– Basic hostility

Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspective

• Contributions

– Awareness of unconscious drives, impulses

• Criticisms

– Overimportance of sexual and aggressive drives

– Too little on social relationships

– Lack of evidence

– Questions of validity

– Untestable hypotheses, unscientific

Module 12.2

The Trait Perspective

• Personality consists of traits

– Stable, enduring characteristics or dispositions

– Describe and predict behavior

• Focus on

– How people differ in traits

– Ways of measuring traits

– Organization of traits

Gordon Allport

• Personality traits are physical aspect of brain

– Inherited but influenced by experience

• Hierarchy of traits

– Cardinal traits

– Central traits

– Secondary traits

Raymond Cattell

• Two basic levels of traits

– Surface traits

– Source traits

• Factor analysis

Hans Eysenck

• Three major traits

– Introversion-extraversion

– Neuroticism

– Psychoticism

Five-Factor Model of Personality

• “Big Five” model

– Neuroticism

– Extraversion

– Openness

– Agreeableness

– Conscientiousness

Genetic Basis of Traits

• Heredity plays important role in personality

– Neuroticism

– Shyness

– Aggressiveness

– Novelty-seeking

• Interactions of biology and environment

Evaluating the Trait Perspective

• Positives

– Intuitive appeal

– Convenient categories

– Development of personality tests

• Drawbacks

– Label rather than explain behavior: circular reasoning

– Behavior may not be so stable

• Ignores situational factors

• Interactionism: traits and situational factors

Module 12.3

The Social-Cognitive Perspective

Traditional Behavioral View

• Watson, Skinner

• All behavior is learned

– Classical conditioning

– Operant conditioning

• History of reinforcements and punishments shapes behavior

Social-Cognitive Theory

• Personality is based on learning

– Going beyond traditional behaviorism

• Importance of

– Cognitive aspects of behavior

• Expectancies

– Social aspects of behavior

• Imitation

• Julian Rotter

– Explaining, predicting behavior depends on

• Reinforcement history

• Expectancies

• Subjective values

• Locus of control

– External versus internal

• Albert Bandura

– Reciprocal determinism

• Cognitions, behaviors, environmental factors influence each other

– Observational learning

– Outcome expectations

– Efficacy expectations

• Self-efficacy

Reciprocal Determinism
(Figure 12.4)

Social-Cognitive Theory

• Walter Mischel

• Behavior influenced by

– Situational variables

– Person variables

• Expectancies

• Subjective values

• Competencies

• Encoding strategies

• Self-regulatory systems and plans

Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective

• Benefits

– Understanding of behavior and environmental factors

• Behavior therapy

– Broadening of learning theory

• Cognitive-behavioral therapy

• Criticisms

– Fails to include unconscious influences, heredity

– Little focus on subjective experience

Module 12.4

The Humanistic Perspective

• Central features

– Conscious choice

– Personal freedom

– Free will, choices

• Carl Rogers

– Self-theory

• Self-actualization

• Self-concept

• Self-esteem

– Unconditional positive regard

– Conditional positive regard

• Self-ideals

– Client-centered therapy

• Abraham Maslow

– Emphasis on self-actualization

Culture and Self-Identity

• Collectivistic cultures

– Group goals

– Communal values

• Harmony, respect authority, interdependence

• Individualistic cultures

– Independence

– Self-sufficiency

Module 12.5

Personality Tests

Measuring Personality:
Historical Attempts

• Examination of facial features

• Phrenology

Measuring Personality Today

• Two major categories

– Self-report personality inventories

– Projective tests

Self-Report Personality Inventories

• Objective tests

– Scored objectively

– Limited response options

– Based on research

• Example: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

– Standard scores

• Evaluating self-report tests

Projective Tests

• Unstructured or ambiguous stimuli to be interpreted

– Assume people “project” needs, drives, motives through responses

• Examples

– Rorschach test: inkblots

– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

• Evaluating projective tests

Rorschach Inkblot (Figure 12.6)

Module 12.6

Application: Building Self-Esteem

Building Self-Esteem

• Acquire competencies

– Training and practice in skills

• Set realistic goals

• Enhance self-efficacy expectations

• Create a sense of meaningfulness in your life

• Challenge perfectionistic expectations

– Adopt realistic expectations based on strengths and weaknesses

• Challenge need for constant approval